In computer programming Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting, and maintaining the source code of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language. The code may be a modification of an existing source or something completely new. The purpose of programming is to create a program that exhibits a certain, BASIC (an acronym Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations that are formed using the initial components in a phrase or name. These components may be individual letters or parts of words (as in Benelux). There is no universal agreement on the precise definition of the various terms (see nomenclature), nor on written usage (see orthographic styling). While popular for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code[1]) is a family of high-level programming languages A high-level programming language is a programming language with strong abstraction from the details of the computer. In comparison to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language elements, be easier to use, or be more portable across platforms. Such languages hide the details of CPU operations such as memory access models and. The original BASIC Dartmouth BASIC is the original version of the BASIC programming language. It is so named because it was designed and implemented at Dartmouth College. The language was designed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz as part of the Dartmouth Time Sharing System and was one of the first programming languages intended to be used interactively was designed in 1964 by John George Kemeny John George Kemeny (May 31, 1926, Budapest – December 26, 1992, New Hampshire), was a Hungarian American mathematician, computer scientist, and educator best known for co-developing the BASIC programming language in 1964 with Thomas E. Kurtz and Thomas Eugene Kurtz Thomas Eugene Kurtz is an American computer scientist who co-developed the BASIC programming language during 1963 to 1964, together with John G. Kemeny at Dartmouth College Dartmouth College is a private, coeducational liberal arts college located in Hanover, New Hampshire, USA. Incorporated as "Trustees of Dartmouth College," it is a member of the Ivy League and one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. In addition to its undergraduate liberal arts program, Dartmouth has in New Hampshire It became the first post-colonial sovereign nation in the Americas when it broke off from Great Britain in January 1776, and was one of the original thirteen states that founded the United States of America six months later. In June 1788, it became the ninth state to ratify the United States Constitution, bringing that document into effect. New, USA ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language to provide computer access to non-science students. At the time, nearly all use of computers required writing custom software, which was something only scientists A scientist in a broad sense is one engaging in a systematic activity to acquire knowledge. In a more restricted sense, a scientist is an individual who uses the scientific method. The person may be an expert in one or more areas of science. This article focuses on the more restricted use of the word. Scientists perform research toward a more and mathematicians A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study or research, or both, is the field of mathematics. Mathematicians are concerned with particular problems related to logic, space, transformations, numbers and more general ideas which encompass these concepts. Some notable mathematicians include Sir Isaac Newton, Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwā tended to be able to do. The language and its variants became widespread on microcomputers A microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit. They are physically small compared to mainframe and minicomputers. Many microcomputers are also personal computers (in the generic sense) in the late 1970s and 1980s. BASIC remains popular to this day in a handful of highly modified dialects A dialect of a programming language is a variation or extension of the language that does not change its intrinsic nature. With languages such as Scheme and Forth, standards may be considered insufficient, inadequate or even illegitimate by implementors, so often they will deviate from the standard, making a new dialect. In other cases, a dialect and new languages influenced by BASIC such as Microsoft Microsoft Corporation is a public multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of products and services predominantly related to computing through its various product divisions. Established on April 4, 1975 to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8 Visual Basic Visual Basic is the third-generation event-driven programming language and integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft for its COM programming model. VB is also considered a relatively easy to learn and use programming language, because of its graphical development features and BASIC heritage. As of 2006, 59% of developers for the .NET platform used Visual Basic .NET Visual Basic .NET is an object-oriented computer programming language that can be viewed as an evolution of Microsoft's Visual Basic (VB) which is generally implemented on the Microsoft .NET Framework. Microsoft currently supplies Visual Basic Express Edition free of charge as their only language.[2]
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History
Before the mid-1960s, computers A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data//information, and provides output in a useful format were extremely expensive and used only for special-purpose tasks. A simple batch processing Batch processing is execution of a series of programs on a computer without manual intervention arrangement ran only a single "job" at a time, one after another. But during the 1960s faster and more affordable computers became available. With this extra processing power, computers would sometimes sit idle, without jobs to run.
Programming languages in the batch programming era tended to be designed, like the machines on which they ran, for specific purposes (such as scientific formula In mathematics and in the sciences, a formula is a concise way of expressing information symbolically (as in a mathematical or chemical formula), or a general relationship between quantities. One of many famous formulae is Albert Einstein's E = mc2 (see special relativity) calculations or business data processing or eventually for text editing Text editors are often provided with operating systems or software development packages, and can be used to change configuration files and programming language source code). Since even the newer, less expensive machines were still major investments, there was a strong tendency to consider efficiency to be the most important feature of a language. In general, these specialized languages were difficult to use and had widely disparate syntax In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages.
As prices decreased, the possibility of sharing computer access began to move from research labs to commercial use. Newer computer systems supported time-sharing Time-sharing is the sharing of a computing resource among many users by means of multiprogramming and multi-tasking. Its introduction in the 1960s, and emergence as the prominent model of computing in the 1970s, represents a major technological shift in the history of computing, a system which allows multiple users or processes to use the CPU The central processing unit or the processor is the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, and is the primary element carrying out the computer's functions. It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions. The data in the instruction tells the processor what to do. The instructions are and memory. In such a system the operating system An operating system is the software on a computer that manages the way different programs use its hardware, and regulates the ways that a user controls the computer. Operating systems are found on almost any device that contains a computer with multiple programs—from cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers. Some alternates between running processes, giving each one running time on the CPU before switching to another. The machines had become fast enough that most users could feel they had the machine all to themselves. In theory, timesharing reduced the cost of computing tremendously, as a single machine could be shared among hundreds of users.
Early years: the mainframe and mini-computer era
The original BASIC language was designed in 1963 by John Kemeny John George Kemeny (May 31, 1926, Budapest – December 26, 1992, New Hampshire), was a Hungarian American mathematician, computer scientist, and educator best known for co-developing the BASIC programming language in 1964 with Thomas E. Kurtz and Thomas Kurtz Thomas Eugene Kurtz is an American computer scientist who co-developed the BASIC programming language during 1963 to 1964, together with John G. Kemeny[3] and implemented by a team of Dartmouth students under their direction. BASIC was designed to allow students to write programs for the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System The Dartmouth Time-Sharing System, or DTSS for short, was the first large-scale time-sharing system to be implemented successfully. Its implementation began at Dartmouth College in 1963 by a student team under the direction of John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz with the aim of providing easy access to computing facilities for all members of the college. It was intended to address the complexity issues of older languages with a new language design specifically for the new class of users that time-sharing systems allowed—that is, a less technical user who did not have the mathematical background of the more traditional users and was not interested in acquiring it. Being able to use a computer to support teaching and research was quite novel at the time. In the following years, as other dialects of BASIC appeared, Kemeny and Kurtz's original BASIC dialect became known as Dartmouth BASIC Dartmouth BASIC is the original version of the BASIC programming language. It is so named because it was designed and implemented at Dartmouth College. The language was designed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz as part of the Dartmouth Time Sharing System and was one of the first programming languages intended to be used interactively.
The eight design principles of BASIC were:
- Be easy for beginners to use.
- Be a general-purpose programming language In software development, a domain-specific language is a programming language or specification language dedicated to a particular problem domain, a particular problem representation technique, and/or a particular solution technique. The concept isn't new—special-purpose programming languages and all kinds of modeling/specification languages have.
- Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners).
- Be interactive In the fields of information science, communication, and industrial design, there is debate over the meaning of interactivity. In the "contingency view" of interactivity, there are three levels:.
- Provide clear and friendly error messages An error message is a message displayed when an unexpected condition occurs, usually on a computer or other device. Error messages are often displayed using dialog boxes. Error messages are used when user intervention is required, indicate that a desired operation has failed, or give very important warnings such as being out of hard disk space.
- Respond quickly for small programs.
- Not to require an understanding of computer hardware.
- Shield the user from the operating system.
The language was based partly on FORTRAN II Fortran is a general-purpose,[note 2] procedural,[note 3] imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing. Originally developed by IBM at their campus in south San Jose, California in the 1950s for scientific and engineering applications, Fortran came to dominate this area of programming and partly on ALGOL 60 ALGOL is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in the mid 1950s which greatly influenced many other languages and became the de facto way algorithms were described in textbooks and academic works for almost the next 30 years. It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with FORTRAN[citation needed], with additions to make it suitable for timesharing. (The features of other time-sharing systems such as JOSS JOSS was one of the very first interactive, time sharing programming languages and CORC CORC , was a simple computer language developed at Cornell University in 1962 to serve lay users, namely, for students to use to solve math problems. Its developers, industrial engineering professors Richard Conway and William Maxwell and mathematics professor Robert J. Walker, sought to create a diagnostic compiler in PL/I which could both expose, and to a lesser extent LISP A lisp is a speech impediment, historically also known as sigmatism. Stereotypically, people with a lisp are unable to pronounce sibilants (like the sound [s]), and replace them with interdentals (like the sound [θ]), though there are actually several kinds of lisp. The result is that the speech is unclear, were also considered.) It had been preceded by other teaching-language experiments at Dartmouth such as the DARSIMCO (1956) and DOPE (1962 implementations of SAP and DART (1963) which was a simplified FORTRAN II). Initially, BASIC concentrated on supporting straightforward mathematical work, with matrix arithmetic support from its initial implementation as a batch language and full string functionality being added by 1965. BASIC was first implemented on the GE-265 The GE-200 series was a family of small mainframe computers of the 1960s, built by General Electric mainframe Mainframes are powerful computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial transaction processing which supported multiple terminals A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that is used for entering data into, and displaying data from, a computer or a computing system. Early terminals were inexpensive devices but very slow compared to punched cards or paper tape for input, but as the technology improved and video displays were introduced,. At the time of its introduction, it was a compiled A compiler is a computer program that transforms source code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code). The most common reason for wanting to transform source code is to create an executable program language. It was also quite efficient, beating FORTRAN II and ALGOL 60 implementations on the 265 at several fairly computationally intensive (at the time) programming problems such as numerical integration by Simpson's Rule In numerical analysis, Simpson's rule is a method for numerical integration, the numerical approximation of definite integrals. Specifically, it is the following approximation:.
The designers of the language decided to make the compiler available free of charge so that the language would become widespread. They also made it available to high schools in the Hanover Hanover is a town along the Connecticut River in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 10,850 at the 2000 census. In 2007, CNN and Money magazine rated Hanover the second best place to live in America area and put a considerable amount of effort into promoting the language. As a result, knowledge of BASIC became relatively widespread (for a computer language) and BASIC was implemented by a number of manufacturers, becoming fairly popular on newer minicomputers A minicomputer is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest multi-user systems (mainframe computers) and the smallest single-user systems (microcomputers or personal computers). The class at one time formed a distinct group with its own hardware and operating systems, but the like the DEC Digital Equipment Corporation was a pioneering American computer company, a leading vendor in the minicomputer market though the 1960s and 1970s, and for a long time one of the most admired within the hacker community.[citation needed] PDP Programmed Data Processor was the name of a series of minicomputers made by Digital Equipment Corporation. The name 'PDP' intentionally avoided the use of the term 'computer' because at the time of the first PDPs, computers had a reputation of being large, complicated, and expensive machines, and the venture capitalists behind Digital (esp series and the Data General Nova The Data General Nova was a popular 16-bit minicomputer built by the American company Data General starting in 1969. The Nova was packaged into a single rack mount case and had enough power to do most simple computing tasks. The Nova became popular in science laboratories around the world, and eventually 50,000 units were sold. It was followed by. The BASIC language was also central to the HP Time-Shared BASIC HP Time-Shared BASIC was a computer system sold by the Hewlett-Packard Corporation in the late 1960s and 1970s based on their HP 2100 line of minicomputers. The system implemented a dialect of the BASIC programming language and a rudimentary user account and program library system. The software run on the system was also known by its versioned system in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and the Pick operating system The Pick operating system is a demand-paged, multiuser, virtual memory, time-sharing operating system based around a unique "multivalued" database. It is used primarily for business data processing. Although it started on a variety of minicomputers, the system and various implementations eventually spread to a large variety of. In these instances the language tended to be implemented as an interpreter In computer science, an interpreter normally means a computer program that executes, i.e. performs, instructions written in a programming language. An interpreter may be a program that either, instead of (or in addition to) a compiler A compiler is a computer program that transforms source code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code). The most common reason for wanting to transform source code is to create an executable program.
Several years after its release, highly respected computer professionals, notably Edsger W. Dijkstra, expressed their opinions that the use of GOTO statements, which existed in many languages including BASIC, promoted poor programming practices.[4] Some have also derided BASIC as too slow (most interpreted versions are slower than equivalent compiled versions) or too simple (many versions, especially for small computers, left out important features and capabilities).
Explosive growth: the home computer era
MSX BASIC version 3.0Notwithstanding the language's use on several minicomputers, it was the introduction of the MITS Altair 8800 "kit" microcomputer in 1975 that provided BASIC a path to universality. Most programming languages required suitable text editors, large amounts of memory and available disk space, whereas the early microcomputers had no resident editors, limited memory and often substituted recordable audio tapes for disk space. All these issues allowed a language like BASIC, in its interpreted form with a built-in code editor, to operate within those constraints.
BASIC also had the advantage that it was fairly well-known to the young designers and computer hobbyists who took an interest in microcomputers, and generally worked in the electronics industries of the day. Kemeny and Kurtz's earlier proselytizing paid off in this respect and the few hobbyists' journals of the era were filled with columns that made mentions of the language or focused entirely on one version compared to others.
One of the first to appear for the 8080 machines like the Altair was Tiny BASIC, a simple BASIC implementation originally written by Dr. Li-Chen Wang, and then ported onto the Altair by Dennis Allison at the request of Bob Albrecht (who later founded Dr. Dobb's Journal). The Tiny BASIC design and the full source code were published in 1976 in DDJ.
In 1975, MITS released Altair BASIC, developed by Bill Gates and Paul Allen as the company Micro-Soft, which grew into today's corporate giant, Microsoft. The first Altair version was co-written by Gates, Allen, and Monte Davidoff. Versions of Microsoft BASIC (also known then, and most widely as M BASIC or MBASIC) was soon bundled with the original floppy disk-based CP/M computers, which became widespread in small business environments. As the popularity of BASIC on CP/M spread, newer computer designs also introduced their own version of the language, or had Micro-Soft port its version to their platform.
When three major new computers were introduced in what Byte Magazine would later call the "1977 Trinity",[5] all three had BASIC as their primary programming language and operating environment. Commodore Business Machines paid a one-time fee for an unlimited license to a version of Micro-Soft BASIC that was ported to the MOS 6502 in their PET computer, while Apple II and TRS-80 both introduced new, largely similar versions of the language. The similarities are striking because the first 50 tokens, used for conserving memory, were all the same. As new companies entered the field, additional versions were added that subtly changed the BASIC family. The Atari 8-bit family had their own Atari BASIC that was modified in order to fit on an 8 kB ROM cartridge. The BBC published BBC BASIC, developed for them by Acorn Computers Ltd, incorporating many extra structuring keywords. Most of the home computers of the 1980s had a ROM-resident BASIC interpreter, allowing the machines to boot directly into BASIC. Because of this legacy, there are more dialects of BASIC than there are of any other programming language.
As the popularity of BASIC grew in this period, magazines (such as Creative Computing Magazine in the US) published complete source code in BASIC for games, utilities, and other programs. Given BASIC's straightforward nature, it was a simple matter to type in the code from the magazine and execute the program. Different magazines were published featuring programs for specific computers, though some BASIC programs were considered universal and could be used in machines running any variant of BASIC (sometimes with minor adaptations). Correcting the publishing errors that frequently occurred in magazine listings was an educational exercise in itself.
BASIC source code was also published in fully-fledged books: the seminal examples being David Ahl's BASIC Computer Games series.[6][7][8] Later packages, such as Learn to Program BASIC would also have gaming as an introductory focus.
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